Type Ia Supernovae Hubble Diagram Reveals a Static Universe

Author(s)

Abstract
This paper represents a direct continuation of the groundbreaking study, Quantum Redshift Effect of Photon. A review of Hubble diagrams of SNe Ia (Type Ia supernovae) published by various researchers reveals that interpreting the Hubble redshift as evidence of cosmic expansion is fundamentally flawed. Comparisons of different redshift mechanisms in physics suggest that the quantum redshift effect of photons is the dominant factor influencing the redshifts observed in cosmology. By applying redshift and extinction corrections to the redshift-distance modulus function, a new function is established. Utilizing two data points from the existing Hubble diagram of SNe Ia, the Hubble constant and the extinction rate are determined. These constants are then incorporated into the corrected redshift-distance modulus function to quantitatively characterize its behavior. The newly developed function demonstrates a quantitative match with the Hubble diagram, which represents the statistical mean curve of the redshift-distance modulus relationship for SNe Ia. This alignment provides compelling evidence that the redshift observed in SNe Ia is directly attributable to the quantum redshift effect of photons. Thus, the statistical mean curve of the redshift-distance modulus for SNe Ia strongly supports the idea that the quantum redshift effect of photons is the primary cause of the Hubble redshift. Observational data on SNe Ia support this effect, thereby decoupling the relationship between the Hubble redshift and both the Doppler effect and the cosmological gravitational field equations of general relativity. This discovery has led to the abandonment of the cosmic scale factor and related cosmological parameters, including the deceleration factor, dark matter density, dark energy density, cosmic curvature, and the cosmological constant. It strongly challenges the current cosmological perspective that the universe is expanding at an accelerating rate due to dark energy, effectively rejecting the theory of cosmic expansion. The quantum redshift effect theory of photons, formerly known as the Tired Light hypothesis, is a novel concept that has not yet gained widespread acceptance but is poised to offer an explanation for the cosmic redshift of photons. Cosmology must incorporate the quantum redshift effect to resolve the century-old Hubble redshift problem.

Keywords
SNe Ia (Type Ia supernovae), Hubble diagram, redshift-distance modulus, quantum redshift effect, Hubble redshift, Tired Light hypothesis, cosmological gravitational field equations, dark energy, time dilation

Cite this paper
Zhenglong Xu, Type Ia Supernovae Hubble Diagram Reveals a Static Universe , SCIREA Journal of Physics. Volume 11, Issue 1, February 2026 | PP. 1-41. 10.54647/physics140711

References